Muaz Saleh is a blog writer based in Toronto, Canada. He's interested in all things tech, science, and soccer, and likes to play card games with his family in his free time.


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Muaz Saleh


## Exploring the Impact of Large Language Models

Over the past few months, large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT have gained significant attention, showcasing their capabilities in diverse tasks such as writing poetry or planning vacations. These advancements highlight the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in driving enterprise value.

**Introduction to Foundation Models**

Kate Sol, Senior Manager of Business Strategy at IBM Research, [explains](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfIUstzHs9A&ab_channel=IBMTechnology) that LLMs are a subset of a broader class known as foundation models. The term “foundation models” was coined by Stanford researchers who observed a shift in AI development. Traditionally, AI applications relied on training multiple models on specific tasks using task-specific data. However, the paradigm is shifting towards using a single foundational model that can be adapted for various applications.

**Generative AI and Foundation Models**

Foundation models are trained on vast amounts of unstructured data, enabling them to predict and generate the next word in a sentence. This generative capability categorizes them under generative AI. For example, a model might complete the sentence “no use crying over spilled” with “milk.” Despite being trained for generative tasks, these models can be fine-tuned with minimal labeled data to perform traditional natural language processing (NLP) tasks, such as classification or named entity recognition.

**Tuning and Prompting Techniques**

Foundation models can be adapted to specific tasks through two primary methods:
1. **Tuning**: Introducing a small amount of labeled data to update the model’s parameters for specific NLP tasks.
2. **Prompting**: Using carefully crafted prompts to guide the model’s responses, even in low-label data scenarios. For instance, asking the model to determine if a sentence has a positive or negative sentiment based on its generative capabilities.

**Advantages of Foundation Models**

1. **Performance**: Due to extensive training on large datasets, foundation models excel in various tasks, outperforming models trained on limited data.
2. **Productivity Gains**: These models require less labeled data for specific tasks, leveraging their pre-training on vast unlabeled datasets to deliver efficient results.

**Challenges of Foundation Models**

1. **Compute Costs**: Training foundation models is resource-intensive, making it challenging for smaller enterprises to train their own models. Running inference on large models also demands significant computational power, often requiring multiple GPUs.
2. **Trustworthiness**: The extensive data used to train these models may include biased or toxic content, raising concerns about the reliability of their outputs. Additionally, the exact datasets used for training are often unknown, complicating efforts to ensure data quality.

**Innovations and Applications**

Beyond language applications, foundation models are being applied in various domains:
- **Vision**: Models like DALL-E generate custom images from text descriptions.
- **Code**: Tools like Copilot assist in code completion.
- **Chemistry**: Moleformer aids in molecule discovery for targeted therapeutics.
- **Climate Change**: Earth science foundation models utilize geospatial data for climate research.

These advanced models are integrated into products and driving innovation across language, vision, code, and scientific research domains.

**Conclusion**

Foundation models represent a significant leap in AI capabilities, offering robust performance and productivity benefits while also presenting challenges in compute costs and trustworthiness. Ongoing research and development aim to enhance these models, making them more efficient and reliable for diverse business applications.



Learn how generative models like large language models (LLMs) are transforming AI with their ability to handle diverse tasks efficiently.

What are Generative AI models?


## Understanding Machine Learning

Machine learning (ML) has become a pivotal topic, garnering significant interest from both business professionals and technologists. This article provides a comprehensive overview of machine learning, distinguishing it from related fields such as artificial intelligence (AI) and deep learning, and exploring its various types and applications.

### Distinguishing AI, ML, and Deep Learning

To begin, it is essential to differentiate between Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning:

- **Artificial Intelligence (AI)**: AI encompasses the development of systems that mimic human problem-solving and decision-making abilities.
- **Machine Learning (ML)**: ML, a subset of AI, focuses on algorithms that learn from data to make predictions or decisions.
- **Deep Learning**: A subset of ML, deep learning automates the feature extraction process, enabling the analysis of extensive datasets with minimal human intervention.

This discussion will focus on machine learning and its various types.

### Categories of Machine Learning

#### 1. Supervised Learning

Supervised learning involves the use of labeled datasets to train algorithms, enabling the classification of data or the prediction of outcomes. This approach can be further divided into two main techniques:

- **Classification Models**: These models categorize data into predefined groups. A practical application of classification is in customer retention strategies, where businesses aim to identify potential customer churn and take proactive measures to retain customers. Historical customer data, including activity and churn history, is used to build these models, helping predict which customers are likely to churn.
  
- **Regression Models**: Regression involves building equations that use various input values, each weighted according to its impact on the outcome, to estimate an output value. In the airline industry, regression techniques are used to predict optimal flight pricing. Factors such as days before departure, day of the week, and destination are analyzed to determine the ideal price point, maximizing revenue.

#### 2. Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning utilizes algorithms to analyze and cluster unlabeled datasets, uncovering hidden patterns without human intervention. Key techniques include:

- **Clustering**: Clustering algorithms group similar data points together. This method is commonly used in customer segmentation, where businesses seek to understand customer similarities and differences to enhance marketing efforts. By analyzing various customer attributes, such as purchase history and online activity, clustering algorithms help create targeted customer segments.
  
- **Dimensionality Reduction**: Although not discussed in detail here, dimensionality reduction techniques reduce the number of input variables in a dataset, preventing redundancy and ensuring a more accurate representation of data.

#### 3. Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning is a semi-supervised learning approach where an agent learns to perform tasks by receiving rewards for correct actions and penalties for incorrect ones. This iterative process enables the agent to optimize its performance over time.

- **Application Example**: In the context of autonomous driving, reinforcement learning is used to teach self-driving cars how to navigate complex environments. The system learns to avoid collisions, adhere to speed limits, and follow traffic rules through continuous feedback and adjustment.

### Conclusion

This article has outlined the foundational concepts of machine learning, highlighting the distinctions between supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. Each type of machine learning offers unique methodologies and applications, driving advancements across various industries.

For those interested in further exploration, additional resources on common machine learning algorithms and their applications in data science are available. Enhancing one’s understanding of these technologies can significantly impact one’s ability to leverage machine learning effectively.


Explore the fundamentals of machine learning, including supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning, and their real-world applications.

What is Machine Learning?



# The 7 Types of AI - And Why We Talk (Mostly) About 3 of Them

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly evolving field that encompasses a wide range of technologies and capabilities. To better understand the landscape of AI, we can classify it into seven distinct types, divided into two main categories: AI capabilities and AI functionalities. Let’s delve into these categories to see what each type of AI entails and where we stand today.

## AI Capabilities

### 1. Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)
Artificial Narrow Intelligence, also known as Weak AI, is the only type of AI that currently exists. Despite its name, narrow AI is highly specialized and can perform tasks that might surpass human capabilities within its defined scope. However, it is limited to the specific tasks it is trained for and requires human input for training and operation. Examples include virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa, as well as recommendation algorithms used by streaming services.

### 2. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
Artificial General Intelligence, or Strong AI, is a theoretical concept. AGI would have the ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across a broad range of tasks, much like a human. It could transfer knowledge from one domain to another and learn new tasks independently, without human intervention. While AGI remains a popular topic in science fiction and speculative discussions, it does not yet exist.

### 3. Artificial Superintelligence (ASI)
Artificial Superintelligence represents a level of AI that surpasses human intelligence and capabilities. ASI would be able to perform cognitive tasks far beyond human abilities, including reasoning, learning, and making judgments. It could potentially have emotions, desires, and beliefs of its own. While ASI is a fascinating and sometimes unsettling concept, it remains purely hypothetical at this stage.

## AI Functionalities

### 1. Reactive Machines
Reactive Machine AI is designed to perform specific tasks by analyzing vast amounts of data and generating outputs based on statistical probabilities. These systems do not have memory or the ability to use past experiences to influence future actions. A notable example is IBM’s Deep Blue, which defeated chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov in the late 1990s by analyzing the chessboard and predicting the outcomes of moves.

### 2. Limited Memory AI
Limited Memory AI can utilize past experiences and data to make informed decisions. It can track and monitor specific objects or situations over time, improving its performance with more data. Examples include self-driving cars and generative AI chatbots, which use past interactions to generate more accurate and contextually relevant responses.

### 3. Theory of Mind AI
Theory of Mind AI is a theoretical concept focused on understanding the thoughts and emotions of other entities, particularly humans. This type of AI would infer human motives and reasoning, allowing for personalized interactions based on individual emotional needs and intentions. Emotion AI, currently in development, aims to analyze voices, images, and other data to understand and respond to human emotions.

### 4. Self-Aware AI
Self-Aware AI, perhaps the most advanced and speculative form of AI, would possess self-awareness and an understanding of its own internal states. It would have its own set of emotions, needs, and beliefs, making it capable of autonomous thought and action. While self-aware AI remains a theoretical construct, it is often discussed in terms of its potential implications and ethical considerations.

## Conclusion

In summary, we have explored seven types of AI, categorized into AI capabilities and AI functionalities. Currently, only three types of AI—Artificial Narrow Intelligence, Reactive Machines, and Limited Memory AI—are realized and in use today. The remaining types—Artificial General Intelligence, Artificial Superintelligence, Theory of Mind AI, and Self-Aware AI—are still theoretical and subject to ongoing research and development.

As we continue to advance in the field of AI, understanding these classifications helps us gauge our progress and envision the potential future of artificial intelligence. This taxonomy of AI types provides a framework for understanding where we are on our AI journey and what might lie ahead.

Explore the seven types of AI, from narrow AI to superintelligence, and understand their capabilities and functionalities in today's tech landscape.

The 7 Types of AI - And Why We Talk (Mostly) About 3 of Them


## The most important Trends Shaping 2024

In the ever-evolving landscape of artificial intelligence, 2024 promises to be a year of innovation and transformation. From realistic expectations to regulatory developments, here are nine key trends driving the AI revolution this year.

### 1. Reality Check

The hype surrounding AI has given way to a more nuanced understanding of its capabilities. Integrating AI as a complement to existing tools, rather than a standalone solution, is becoming the norm. Expectations are aligning with reality, leading to more practical applications of AI in various domains.

### 2. Multi-modal AI

AI models are becoming increasingly versatile, capable of processing multiple types of data inputs. This multi-modal approach allows models to seamlessly transition between different tasks, such as natural language processing and computer vision, opening up new possibilities for interaction and analysis.

### 3. Smaller Models

While massive AI models have dominated headlines, there's a growing trend towards smaller, more efficient models. These smaller models not only reduce the environmental impact of AI but also make it more accessible by lowering the barrier to entry for training and inference.

### 4. GPU and Cloud Costs

The demand for AI has driven up the costs of GPUs and cloud services. As a result, there's a push for more cost-effective solutions that optimize resource usage and reduce reliance on expensive infrastructure.

### 5. Model Optimization

Techniques like quantization and low-rank adaptation are being embraced to optimize AI models for better performance and efficiency. By reducing memory usage and speeding up inference, these optimization techniques are unlocking new possibilities for AI applications.

### 6. Custom Local Models

Organizations are harnessing the power of open-source models to develop custom AI solutions tailored to their specific needs. By training models on proprietary data and fine-tuning them for specific tasks, businesses can gain a competitive edge while maintaining data privacy and security.

### 7. Virtual Agents

Virtual agents are evolving beyond traditional chatbots to become proactive assistants that can complete tasks and connect with other services. From making reservations to completing checklist tasks, virtual agents are streamlining workflows and enhancing productivity.

### 8. Regulation

Governments are stepping up efforts to regulate AI technologies, with the European Union's Artificial Intelligence Act being a significant development. These regulations aim to ensure ethical and responsible use of AI while addressing concerns related to privacy, bias, and accountability.

### 9. Shadow AI

Employees are increasingly using AI tools in the workplace without official approval or oversight. While this "shadow AI" can boost productivity, it also raises concerns about data security, privacy, and compliance. Organizations need to develop clear policies and guidelines to mitigate risks associated with shadow AI.

In conclusion, 2024 is poised to be a pivotal year for artificial intelligence, with these nine trends shaping the future of AI-powered innovation. As we navigate the evolving landscape of AI, it's essential to embrace these trends responsibly and ethically to unlock the full potential of this transformative technology.


Discover the top 9 AI trends shaping 2024, from realistic expectations to regulatory developments. Navigate the AI revolution with these key insights.

The most important AI trends in 2024 | IBM edition


# How to Learn Machine Learning in 2024

In today's digital age, all you need to embark on the journey of learning machine learning (ML) is a laptop and a roadmap of steps to follow. As a student researcher who has navigated interviews with prestigious companies like Google DeepMind and Amazon, I understand the importance of a structured approach to learning ML. In this guide, I'll share the six key steps I would take to master machine learning if I were starting over.

## Step 1: Master Python Basics

Python serves as the cornerstone of ML development, making it essential to grasp its fundamentals. Whether you're new to programming or seeking to reinforce your skills, starting with Python tutorials or courses is the way to go. Focus on understanding concepts like data types, control structures, and list comprehensions, as they form the basis for more advanced ML techniques.

## Step 2: Embrace Fundamental Math Concepts

While Python handles much of the heavy lifting in ML, a solid grasp of fundamental math concepts is indispensable. Concepts like calculus, linear algebra, and probability theory underpin ML algorithms, enabling practitioners to understand their inner workings. Thankfully, there are numerous resources available, from online courses to interactive platforms like Khan Academy and Brilliant.org.

## Step 3: Explore the ML Developer Stack

With Python basics and math concepts in your toolkit, it's time to dive into the ML developer stack. Familiarize yourself with essential tools like Jupyter notebooks and libraries such as pandas, NumPy, and Matplotlib. These tools empower you to manipulate data, perform mathematical operations, and visualize results—a crucial skill set for any aspiring ML practitioner.

## Step 4: Take Comprehensive ML Courses

Structured ML courses offer invaluable insights into both theory and practice. Courses like Andrew Ng's Machine Learning Specialization provide a comprehensive overview of ML concepts and frameworks like scikit-learn and TensorFlow. By following along with practical exercises, you'll gain hands-on experience and build confidence in applying ML techniques.

## Step 5: Study Neural Networks

Neural networks lie at the heart of deep learning, driving advancements in areas like natural language processing (NLP) and computer vision. Dive deep into neural networks by following resources like Andrej Karpathy's neural network series, which demystifies concepts like backpropagation and model architecture. Combine theoretical understanding with practical implementation to reinforce your learning.

## Step 6: Deep Dive into Deep Learning

Building on your foundation in ML and neural networks, delve into advanced topics through courses like the Deep Learning Specialization. Explore cutting-edge techniques and frameworks like Hugging Face for NLP tasks, gaining proficiency in areas of interest. Supplement your learning with additional resources to expand your skill set and stay abreast of industry developments.

## Step 7: Work on Projects

Projects serve as the proving ground for your newfound skills, allowing you to apply theory to real-world problems. Engage in Kaggle challenges to tackle diverse datasets and hone your problem-solving abilities. Additionally, reimplementing research papers and reproducing results provides valuable experience and demonstrates your proficiency to potential employers.

## Step 8: Stand Out and Improve

As you progress on your ML journey, seek opportunities to differentiate yourself and continue improving. Contribute to open-source projects, share your knowledge through blogging or videos, and network within the ML community. By staying curious and proactive, you'll continuously evolve as a machine learning practitioner.

Embarking on the path to mastering machine learning requires dedication, perseverance, and a willingness to embrace lifelong learning. By following these steps and immersing yourself in the rich ecosystem of resources available, you'll be well-equipped to tackle the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in the dynamic field of ML.


Embark on the journey of mastering machine learning in 2024 with a laptop and a roadmap of steps. Follow these six key steps to navigate the dynamic landscape of ML and propel your skills to new heights.